Question 1

Question 2Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Accepted Answer

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Following examples show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe:Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences.Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. The use of Polish by members of clergy came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Question 2

Question 3Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Accepted Answer

Development of Germany and Italy can be focused on as two countries developing over the nineteenth century.Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of the process that carried out movement for unification of Germany with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, Kaiser William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. In Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. Finally Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy engineered the defeat of Austria in 1859. Giuseppe Garibaldi joined in 1860 and they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.It can be said that the nations developed because of following reasons:Unrest in people regarding monarchy and autocracy.Making common culture as the base to unify the nation.Strong leadersLiberal movements and expectation of economic development.

Question 3

Question 4How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Accepted Answer

The history of nationalism in Britain is unlike the rest of Europe in the following ways:In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.However, with the growth of the power of the English nation, it was able to dominate the other nations of the islands.The English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict and became a nation-state with England at its centre.In 1707, the United Kingdom was formed with the Act of Union between England and Scotland.England started dominating Scotland and Ireland in all socio-political and cultural spheres. This was evinced by the fact that the British parliament was dominated by English members.Ireland was taken by the British after a failed revolution led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen in 1798. With this, a new ‘British Nation’ was finally formed.The symbols of the new Britain - the British flag, the national anthem, the English language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Question 4

Question 5Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Accepted Answer

The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs. The nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans because:A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.There was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area.

Question 5

Question 7With the help of the chart in Box 3, identify the attributes of Veit's Germania and interpret the symbolic meaning of the painting. In an earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the Kaiser's crown at the place where he has now located the broken chain. Explain the significance of this change.Box 3AttributeSignificanceBroken chainsBeing freedBreastplate with eagleSymbol of the German empire – strengthCrown of oak leavesHeroismSwordReadiness to fightOlive branch around the swordWillingness to make peaceBlack, red and gold tricolourFlag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the German statesRays of the rising sunBeginning of a new era

Accepted Answer

Germania was the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. She has sword with olive branch showing readiness to fight as well as willingness to make peace. Broken chain symbolises freedom, breastplate with eagle symbolises strength of German empire and black, red and gold tricolour is flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848 which was banned by the Dukes of the German states. Rays of the rising sun behind Germania depicts beginning of a new era. In an earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the Kaiser's crown at the place where he has now located the broken chain. This change signifies that the German nation is now free from autocratic monarchical rule.

Question 6

Question 8Describe what you see in Fig. 17. What historical events could Hübner be referring to in this allegorical vision of the nation?

Accepted Answer

The figure shows Germania as drawn by Philip Veit in 1848. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. She has sword with olive branch showing readiness to fight as well as willingness to make peace. Black, red and gold tricolour flag belongs liberal-nationalists in 1848. Breastplate with eagle is the symbol of strength of the German empire.Hübner depicted the fallen Germania. Germania is depicted as a fallen woman, with the crown thrown aside, because the German people's hopes for unity under one monarch (King Friedrich Wilhelm IV) were dashed when he rejected their demand in 1848. The artist, depicted Germany in a forlorn state as a result of the king's rejection. It symbolised the loss of hope.

Question 7

Question 9Look once more at Fig. 10. Imagine you were a citizen of Frankfurt in March 1848 and were present during the proceedings of the parliament. How would you (a) as a man seated in the hall of deputies, and (b) as a woman observing from the galleries, relate to the banner of Germania hanging from the ceiling?

Accepted Answer

(a) As a man seating in the hall of deputies, I feel that whatever was symbolized in Germania has come true but women not getting the equal political rights bothers me. Women have always equally participated in all the struggles. I feel this is injustice.(b) As a woman observing from the galleries, I feel that the whatever has been achieved today is just a partial win. Half of the population is yet to get their political rights. Germania is herself a female figure and still the females of Germany are kept away from voting rights. It is unfair.

Question 8

Question 6Compare the positions on the question of women’s rights voiced by the three writers (Carl Welcker, Louise Otto-Peters, Anonymous) cited above. What do they reveal about liberal ideology?

Accepted Answer

Carl WelckerLouise Otto-PetersAnonymousHe was totally against the equal right for women. According to him women were weaker and were only responsible for taking care of household and kids and their interference in political matters was against the harmony and dignity of the family.She was in support of giving political rights to women. According to her, educated women were far more able than lame men. She wrote that liberty is indivisible and must be granted to both men and women.The anonymous reader also wrote in favour of equal political rights to women. As per the reader, it was ridiculous and unreasonable to deny women political rights even though they enjoy the right to property which they make use of. Is it not a disgrace that even the stupidest cattle-herder possesses the right to vote, simply because he is a man, whereas highly talented women are excluded from this right.They reveal that a part of the learned community supported the political rights and suffrage for women while others considered women fit only for household chores. This shows that the issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.

Question 9

Question 1Write a note on:(a) Giuseppe Mazzini(b) Count Camillo de Cavour(c) The Greek war of independence(d) Frankfurt parliament(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles

Accepted Answer

(a) Giuseppe Mazzini — Giuseppe Mazzini, born in Genoa in 1807, emerged as a key figure in the Italian revolutionary movement. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. He advocated that Italian liberty lay in unification, creating a singular republic within a larger alliance of nations. His relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'. He died on March, 10, 1872.(b) Count Camillo de Cavour — Count Camillo de Cavour, born on August 10, 1810, was a prominent statesman and leading figure in the Italian unification movement. He was well versed in French and this helped him to form a tactful diplomatic alliance with France. This alliance played an important role in Sardinia-Piedmont defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Count Camillo de Cavour became the chief minister. He introduced several economic reforms in his native place in Piedmont and Risorgimento was the political newspaper started by him. In 1860, after Giuseppe Garibaldi's successful Expedition of the Thousand, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies joined the unified Kingdom of Italy. Cavour skillfully managed this annexation, balancing nationalist aspirations with European power dynamics. He died on June 6, 1861.(c) The Greek war of independence — Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.(d) Frankfurt parliament — In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. However, this parliament failed as Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles — Women played very significant roles in nationalist struggles all over the world. A large numbers of women had participated in the liberal movement actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. In the Frankfurt parliament, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors' gallery.

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

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