Question 1

Question 3Find out more about the some of the pastoral communities marked in Figs. 11 and 13.Figure 11Figure 13

Accepted Answer

Dhangars — The Dhangars are a herding caste of people found majorly in Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. Initially, there were twelve tribes of Dhangars. The Dhangars have been guardians of livestock, weaving traditions, and cultural resilience. Most of them were shepherds, some were blanket weavers, and still others were buffalo herders. The Dhangar shepherds stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. This was a semi-arid region with low rainfall and poor soil. It was covered with thorny scrub. Nothing but dry crops like bajra could be sown here. In the monsoon this tract became a vast grazing ground for the Dhangar flocks.Monpas — The Monpa people, also known as the Monpas, are a significant tribe in the northeastern Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. The Monpas are believed to be the only nomadic tribe in Northeast India. They rely on animals such as sheep, cows, yaks, goats, and horses for their livelihood. The Monpas are further divided into six sub-groups based on language variations.Zulu — Zulu people are a native ethnic group of Southern Africa. They hold a rich cultural heritage and are the largest ethnic group in South Africa. The Zulu were originally a minor clan founded around 1574 by Zulu kaMalandela. Zulus take pride in their ceremonies, such as the Umhlanga (Reed Dance), where young women participate in a dance celebrating purity and womanhood.Turkana — The Turkana people, also known as the Turkana, are a Nilotic ethnic group native to Turkana County in northwest Kenya. The Turkana inhabit a semi-arid climate region bordering Lake Turkana in the east. The Turkana are mainly semi-nomadic pastoralists who raise camels and weave baskets. Their oral traditions designate them as “the people of the grey bull”, highlighting the significance of domesticated Zebu cattle in their history.

Question 2

Question 1Read Sources A and B.Write briefly about what they tell you about the nature of the work undertaken by men and women in pastoral households.Why do you think pastoral groups often live on the edges of forests?Source AWriting in the 1850s, G.C. Barnes gave the following description of the Gujjars of Kangra:‘In the hills the Gujjars are exclusively a pastoral tribe – they cultivate scarcely at all. The Gaddis keep flocks of sheep and goats and the Gujjars, wealth consists of buffaloes. These people live in the skirts of the forests, and maintain their existence exclusively by the sale of the milk, ghee, and other produce of their herds. The men graze the cattle, and frequently lie out for weeks in the woods tending their herds. The women repair to the markets every morning with baskets on their heads, with little earthen pots filled with milk, butter-milk and ghee, each of these pots containing the proportion required for a day’s meal. During the hot weather the Gujjars usually drive their herds to the upper range, where the buffaloes rejoice in the rich grass which the rains bring forth and at the same time attain condition from the temperate climate and the immunity from venomous flies that torment their existence in the plains.’From: G.C. Barnes, Settlement Report of Kangra, 1850-55.Source BThe accounts of many travellers tell us about the life of pastoral groups. In the early nineteenth century, Buchanan visited the Gollas during his travel through Mysore. He wrote:‘Their families live in small villages near the skirt of the woods, where they cultivate a little ground, and keep some of their cattle, selling in the towns the produce of the dairy. Their families are very numerous, seven to eight young men in each being common. Two or three of these attend the flocks in the woods, while the remainder cultivate their fields, and supply the towns with firewood, and with straw for thatch.’From: Francis Hamilton Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (London, 1807).

Accepted Answer

The men of the Gujjars tribe grazed the cattle in the woods. They remained in woods in summer with their cattle at a height of 10000 to 11000 ft. They milked the buffaloes and made ghee for selling. The women sold milk, curd, ghee and other produce to nearby market on daily basis. The men of Gaddi tribe moved to woods with their goats and sheep to rear them. They spent their winter in the low hills of Siwalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests. By April they moved north and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti. Similarly, the men of Golla tribe worked in fields and few of them grazed the cattle in nearby forests. They sold firewoods and straws in nearby markets.Pastoral groups often live on the edges of forests because it allows them to graze their animals in the forest while also cultivating fields adjacent to the forest area. By residing near the forest, they conveniently handle both activities: selling milk and milk products from their animals in the local market and meeting their food requirements through cultivation.

Question 3

Question 2Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists:Waste Land rulesForest ActsCriminal Tribes ActGrazing Tax

Accepted Answer

Waste Land rules — To colonial officials all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive as it produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. It was seen as ‘waste land’ that needed to be brought under cultivation. From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these Rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists.Forest Acts — By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were being enacted in the different provinces. Through these Acts some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’. No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. It hugely impacted their livelihood. Pastoralists were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. As a result they lost their cattle and became poorer. These policies prioritized British economic interests over the well-being of local populations.Criminal Tribes Act — The British colonial government in India brought in the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 due to their suspicion and distrust of nomadic people, including mobile craftsmen, traders, and pastoralists. They preferred ruling over a settled population, which was easier to control and deemed peaceable and law-abiding. The Act forced these communities to live in notified village settlements, restricted their movement without a permit, and subjected them to constant police surveillance. This led to social seclusion, moral alienation, economic hardships, and a significant decrease in their income.Grazing Tax — The colonial government introduced the grazing tax to increase revenue. Pastoralists had to pay tax on each animal they grazed, which was implemented in most pastoral regions by the mid-nineteenth century. The tax rates increased rapidly, and the collection system became more efficient. Cattle herders needed a pass to enter grazing areas, recording the number of cattle and the tax paid. This reduced their cattle numbers and income, making their lives difficult.

Question 4

Question 4There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders.

Accepted Answer

Two examples of changes that were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders are:Loss of Grazing Lands — Both communities lost their grazing lands due to the preference given to cultivation. Colonial powers considered uncultivated land as “waste land” and brought it under cultivation. This expansion of cultivation encroached upon grazing tracts regularly used by pastoralists, leading to a decline in available pastures for both Indian pastoralists and the Maasai.Movement Restrictions — The colonial governments imposed restrictions on pastoral communities. They issued permits for movement with livestock. Many forests were declared as reserves in India and also in Africa. Thus, both Indian pastoralists and the Maasai faced restriction on their traditional nomadic way of life.

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