Mahatma Gandhi and the National Movement

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation — He formed the Natal Indian Congress and started non-violent Civil disobedience movement to protest against the discriminating treatment meted out to the Indians in South Africa.

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation — They were bound by law to grow indigo on 3/20^th of their land and sell it to the British.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other

Explanation — The given two statements are related with different Satyagraha i.e., Ahmedabad satyagraha and Kheda satyagraha.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Gandhiji’s belief that non-cooperation with evil is as much a duty as cooperation with good is a fundamental principle of his philosophy of Satyagraha. This belief underpinned his political strategies, including the Non-Cooperation Movement.

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation — Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy.

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation — All important leaders who took part in the movement except Gandhiji were arrested.

Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

Explanation — The Chauri Chaura incident in 1922, where a mob set a police station on fire killing 22 policemen, deeply disturbed Gandhiji. As a firm believer in non-violence (Ahimsa), he immediately called off the Non-Cooperation Movement, fearing it was drifting into violence.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Gandhiji believed in peaceful and non-violent protests, and the violent turn of events at Chauri Chaura deeply distressed him. He was against leading a non-violent movement. Therefore, he withdrew the movement.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Ramsay Macdonald, the then Prime Minister of Britain announced an award known as the Communal Award. This award provided separate representation to the Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and the Depressed Classes.
Mahatma Gandhi strongly opposed this award on the grounds that it would disintegrate Indian society and started a fast in protest against it. On 24 September, 1932, the agreement known as Poona Pact was signed between Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar and the Congress. The agreement provided reservation of seats for the depressed classes in the Provincial legislatures, within the general electorate and not by creating a separate electorate. Due to the pact, the depressed classes received 148 seats in the legislature, instead of the 71 as allocated in the Communal Award earlier proposed by the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald.

(i), (iii), (ii)

Bihar

Natal Indian Congress

Solving the problem of the indigo workers

(i) and (ii) only

Ahmedabad Strike

Turkey

salt monopoly exercised by the British Government

The Hindus and the Muslims came closer in political pursuit

Dyarchy should be abolished and there should be complete autonomy in the provinces.

Defiance of British laws

(i) and (ii)

(a) Mahatma Gandhi saw the Charkha as a symbol of a human society that would not glorify machines and technology.

1. The spinning wheel, moreover, could provide the poor with supplementary income and make them self-reliant.
2. Khadi does not seek to destroy all machinery but it does regulate its use and check its weedy growth.
3. It uses machinery for the service of the poorest in their own cottages.
4. The wheel is itself an exquisite piece of machinery.

(b) Swadeshi means producing necessary items in one's own country and using them for one's use without being dependent on imported goods. Gandhiji believed that the use of Swadeshi goods would make us self-sufficient and eliminate our dependence on imported goods. Gandhiji emphasised manual labour and the use of the Charkha and Khadi. He popularised Swadeshi and Khadi by reviving hand spinning and hand weaving.

(c) The Non-Cooperation Movement involved Swadeshi programmes which included-

1. Popularisation of Swadeshi and Khadi by reviving hand-spinning and hand-weaving.
2. Establishment of national schools and colleges and private arbitration courts known as panchayats all over India.
3. Development of unity between Hindus and Muslims.
4. Removal of untouchability and other measures for Harijan welfare.
5. Emancipation and upliftment of women.

(a) The famous march undertaken by Gandhiji was the Dandi March.

1. On 12th March, Mahatma Gandhi began the historic march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, a village on the Gujarat sea coast.
2. A number of people followed him.
3. On the morning of 6th April, Gandhiji violated the Salt Law at Dandi by picking up some salt left by the sea waves.
4. According to the Salt Law, the government had the monopoly to manufacture and sell salt.
5. He had selected to attack the Salt Laws because the salt-tax affected all sections of society, especially the poor.
6. Gandhiji's breaking of the Salt Laws marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(b) Civil Disobedience Movement was different from the Non-Cooperation Movement as the former involved non-payment of taxes and land revenue as well as violation of laws of different kinds in addition to non-cooperation activities.

(c) Mahatma Gandhi tried to promote Hindu-Muslim unity from the Rowlatt Satyagraha to the Third Round Table conference in the following ways-

1. Rowlatt Satyagraha — An important feature of the Rowlatt Satyagraha was Hindu-Muslim unity. This was the call given by Mahatma Gandhi, who always saw a unified India belonging to the people of all religions. He wanted that Hindus and Muslims should support each other in any just cause.
2. Khilafat movement — Gandhiji saw in the Khilafat Movement an opportunity for uniting Hindus and Muslims. He said that the Congress plea for Hindu-Muslim unity "would be an empty phrase if the Hindus hold aloof from the Muslims when their vital interests are at stake".
3. Non-Cooperation Movement — It fostered Hindu-Muslim unity which could be seen in the merger of the Khilafat issue with this Movement. It provided an opportunity to the Congress to bring the urban Muslims into the National Movement by convincing them that the nation was equally concerned with the problems affecting them.

Mahatma Gandhi completely dominated the Indian National Movement from 1915 to 1948. That is why, this period is known as the Gandhian era in Indian history.

To Gandhiji, satyagraha was a moral force born of truth and non-violence. It meant to be fearless, truthful as well as peaceful, suffering willingly while refusing to submit to what is wrong. But even while resisting evil, it would not involve hatred towards the evil-doer.

Satyagraha differs from passive resistance as passive resistance does not exclude the use of physical force for the purpose of gaining one's end, whereas Satyagraha excludes the use of violence.

Gandhiji involved Indian masses in the national movement by unifying the people of the country. He took up the causes of the common people of the country. For example, he took up the issues faced by the indigo farmers in Champaran, then he fought for the demands of mill workers in Ahmedabad and also tried to resolve the issues faced by the farmers of Kheda.

People began to believe so much into him that he came to be known as the Mahatma. He was able to move people with his speeches. He started the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking salt laws. He chose salt because it was used by each section of the society. It was because of his charismatic leadership that he was able to draw masses into the national movement.

Gandhiji led the mill-workers of Ahmedabad in a strike against the mill-owners who had refused to pay them higher wages. When the workers seemed to weaken, he provided support to them by undertaking a fast (hunger strike). Afraid of the consequences, the mill-owners agreed on the fourth day of Gandhiji's fast to give a 35 per cent increase in wages.

The Rowlatt Act authorised the Government to imprison any person without trial and convict him in a court. It implied:

1. Arrest of a person without warrant.
2. In camera trial (trial in seclusion).
3. Restrictions on movements of individuals.
4. Suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus.

Gandhiji appealed to the Viceroy to withhold his consent to the Rowlatt Act. However his appeal was ignored. He started 'Satyagraha' as a challenge to the government.

The leaders of the Khilafat Movement launched in India to champion the cause of the Caliph of Turkey were-

1. Mohammad Ali
2. Shaukat Ali

The Khilafat Movement died a natural death when in November 1922 Mustafa Kemal Pasha deposed the Sultan of Turkey and showed no concern for the holy places of Islam. He finally abolished the Caliphate and separated the State from religion. Mustafa modernised education, agriculture and industry. He developed Turkey on secular and progressive lines.

The three events which disillusioned Gandhiji and turned him into a non-cooperator from a cooperator with the British government were-

1. Passing of the Rowlatt Act, 1919
2. The Jallianwala Bagh tragedy
3. The Khilafat wrongs

The massacre being talked about is Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy. This massacre took place at the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on April 13, 1919.

The steps taken by the people as a part of the Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement were as follows-

1. People resigned from government services
2. Shops selling foreign goods were picketed
3. Students boycotted schools and colleges
4. 'Hartals' and demonstrations were held.

In 1921, the Khilafat Committee appealed to all the Muslims not to join the police and armed forces and not to pay taxes.

The three components of the constructive programme adopted by Gandhiji after the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement were-

1. Removal of untouchability
2. Hindu-Muslim unity
3. The popularisation of Swadeshi and Khadi

The Simon Commission was boycotted everywhere in India because the Commission was composed of seven British members of Parliament. It had no Indian member. This was seen as a violation of the principle of self-determination and a deliberate insult to the self-respect of the Indians.

Lala Lajpat Rai succumbed to the lathi charge during the protest movement against the Simon Commission.

No, the British Government did not accept the Nehru Report.

Its consequence was that a resolution was passed declaring Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) to be the objective of the Congress and Jawaharlal Nehru was made the president of the Congress.

The programme of Civil Disobedience Movement involved

1. Defiance of Salt Laws
2. Boycott of liquor
3. Boycott of foreign cloth and British goods of all kinds
4. Non-payment of taxes and revenues

Mahatma Gandhi started his historic march to Dandi to attack the Salt Law according to which the government had the monopoly to manufacture and sell salt.

Abdul Ghaffar Khan took the leadership of the Civil Disobedience Movement in the extreme north-western part of the country.

He was popularly known as Frontier Gandhi.

The name of the organisation formed by him was Khudai Khidmatgars.

According to the terms (provisions) of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the government agreed to:

1. Withdraw all ordinances and end prosecutions.
2. Release all political prisoners, except those guilty of violence.

Salt law was defied by Gandhiji's Dandi March.

This law was selected to be defied because the salt tax affected all sections of the society, especially the poor.

The Congress decided to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement in January 1932 due to several reasons:

1. The Second Round Table Conference, which took place in London from September to December 1931, did not yield any significant outcomes.
2. The British government did not fully honour the terms of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
3. After the failure of the Second Round Table Conference, the Congress discovered that the British government had begun a new cycle of repression. A series of measures had been imposed to prevent meetings and boycotts.
4. Indian farmers were affected by the Great Depression of 1930s for which Gandhiji sought an interview with Viceroy Willingdon. The interview was refused.

(a) Gandhiji's doctrine of Satyagraha was an effective method of the National Movement.

1. The term Satyagraha is made up of two Sanskrit words—Satya (truth) and Agraha (insistence to hold fast).
2. To Gandhiji, satyagraha was a moral force born of truth and non-violence.
3. It meant to be fearless, truthful as well as peaceful, suffering willingly while refusing to submit to what is wrong.
4. But even while resisting evil, it would not involve hatred towards the evil-doer.
5. Gandhiji's Satyagraha Movement was directed against the British system of exploitation and not the British people individually or collectively.
6. Gandhiji made a distinction between Satyagraha and passive resistance.
7. Passive resistance does not exclude the use of physical force for the purpose of gaining one's end, whereas Satyagraha excludes the use of violence.

(b) Gandhiji's Social Ideals:

Gandhiji's whole philosophy was based on non-violence.

1. According to Gandhiji, it is the weapon of strong, mighty and powerful individuals.
2. He was of the opinion that neither an individual nor a country could gain anything by using violent methods.
3. He launched many movements for gaining freedom but none of them was violent.
4. During the non-cooperation movement, he suspended the movement when it was at its zenith just because of Chauri Chaura incident in which 22 British policemen were burnt alive.

(c) Gandhiji launched the Non-Cooperation Movement on non-violent lines in 1920. The movement included the following programmes:

Boycott programmes

1. Boycott of government schools, colleges and courts.
2. Boycott of foreign goods.
3. Boycott of elections to be held for the Councils as suggested by the reforms of 1919.
4. Resignation from nominated seats in local bodies.
5. Surrender of titles and honorary offices.
6. Refusal to attend government functions.

Swadeshi programmes

1. Popularisation of Swadeshi and Khadi by reviving hand-spinning and hand-weaving.
2. Establishment of national schools and colleges and private arbitration courts known as panchayats all over India.
3. Development of unity between Hindus and Muslims.
4. Removal of untouchability and other measures for Harijan welfare.
5. Emancipation and upliftment of women.

(a) In November 1927, the British Government appointed the Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as the Simon Commission, to investigate the need for further constitutional reforms. The Commission was composed of seven British members of Parliament.

The commission had no Indian member. This was seen as a violation of the principle of self-determination and a deliberate insult to the self-respect of the Indians. Hence, at its Madras session in 1927, presided over by Dr. Ansari, the National Congress decided to boycott the commission 'at every stage and in every form'.

(b) Gandhiji started the Civil Disobedience Movement with his famous Dandi March.

1. On 12th March, Mahatma Gandhi began the historic march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, a village on the Gujarat sea coast.
2. A number of people followed him.
3. On the morning of 6th April, Gandhiji violated the Salt Law at Dandi by picking up some salt left by the sea waves.
4. According to the Salt Law, the government had the monopoly to manufacture and sell salt.
5. He had selected to attack the Salt Laws because the salt-tax affected all sections of society, especially the poor.
6. Gandhiji's breaking of the Salt Laws marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

(c) Since the satyagraha could not be suppressed, the Government, through Tej Bahadur Sapru and Jayakar, started negotiations with Gandhiji in jail.

1. This resulted in the signing of a pact by Gandhiji and Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, in March 1931.
2. This is known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
3. According to the terms of the pact, the Congress consented to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1931.
4. The Great Depression of 1930s in the world had hit the farmers in India.
5. Gandhiji sought an interview with Viceroy Willingdon. The interview was refused.
6. The Congress passed a resolution for the renewal of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
7. Government resorted to repression, issued Ordinances and assumed special powers.
8. The Congress was declared illegal.
9. Congress leaders were arrested and their properties were seized. Communalism was fanned.
10. Gradually the Civil Disobedience Movement lost its force and Congress called it off in 1934.

(a) The action of General Dyer mentioned in the article refers to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. This brutal incident led to the launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Other causes of the movement included the repressive Rowlatt Act, Khilafat movement and the economic hardships faced by the common people.

(b) The impact of this movement on the Indian National Movement were:

1. The National Movement Became a Mass Movement — The Indian national movement, for the first time in history, acquired a real mass base with the participation of different sections of Indian society such as peasants, workers, students, teachers and women.
2. Instilled Confidence Among the People — It generated a desire for freedom and inspired people to challenge the colonial rule.
3. The Congress Became a Revolutionary Movement — It transformed the Indian National Congress from a deliberative assembly into an organisation for action. It became the organiser and leader of the masses in their national struggle.
4. Fostered Hindu-Muslim Unity — It fostered Hindu-Muslim unity which could be seen in the merger of the Khilafat issue with this Movement.
5. Promoted Social Reforms — As a consequence of the Non-Cooperation Movement several steps were taken in the direction of prohibition and removal of untouchability.
6. Spread Nationalism to Every Part of the Country — The Movement gave a new boost to nationalism in India. The Congress organisation was able to reach down to villages.
7. Popularised the Cult of Swaraj — The goal of the Non-Cooperation Movement was to attain Swaraj within the British empire, if possible, and outside, if necessary.

(c) The Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn by Mahatma Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident, where a violent mob set a police station on fire, leading to the death of 22 policemen. Gandhiji felt that the movement was turning violent in many places. He believed in peaceful and non-violent protests, and the violent turn of events deeply distressed him. As per Gandhiji, "If the thing had not been suspended we would have been leading not a non-violent struggle. The cause will prosper by this retreat."

(a) The two Indian Criminal Law Bills mentioned in the excerpt above were collectively known as the Rowlatt Act.

The Rowlatt Act has been described as unjust because it authorised the Government to imprison any person without trial and convict him in a court. It implied:

1. Arrest of a person without warrant.
2. In camera trial (trial in seclusion).
3. Restrictions on movements of individuals.
4. Suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus.

(b) Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in 1920 after Rowlatt Act was passed in the Central Legislature.

Two objectives of this movement are as follows:

1. To attain self government within the British Empire if possible and outside if necessary.
2. Annulment of the Rowlatt Act and remedying the 'Punjab wrong', i.e., the British Government should express its regret on the happenings in Punjab, particularly in Amritsar.

On April 13, 1919, a large crowd had gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar to celebrate Baisakhi and peacefully protest against the arrest of leaders like Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu and Dr. Satya Pal. Speeches were in progress and people were sloganeering and there was peace and order all around. Suddenly General Dyer along with his soldiers marched in and surrounded the Bagh. After closing the only exit of the garden, he ordered the soldiers to start shooting.
There was chaos and confusion all around. People started running frantically to save their lives, unsuccessfully trying to escape by climbing the walls. The atmosphere was filled with helpless cries of people and the firing of bullets. Many people jumped inside the well in the garden to escape the bullets. The troops kept on firing till their ammunition was exhausted.
After the troops withdrew, their was death and despair all around. There were bodies everywhere and people's belongings, clothes, shoes and pagris (turbans) were scattered all over the ground. At some places, 7 or 8 corpses were piled, one over another. There were many innocent children among the dead too, some as young as 3 years old.
The atrocities of General Dyer transformed Jallianwala Bagh from the site of peaceful protest to the garden of the dead.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, despite being a horrifying event, remained one of the most underplayed news stories of its time due to the following reasons:

1. Strict censorship by the British Government: The colonial authorities imposed tight control over the press and restricted the reporting of any incident that could tarnish the image of British rule or provoke public anger.

2. Fear of repression: The Indian press feared severe punishment, fines, or closure if they openly criticized the British administration. Hence, most newspapers published the news in the inside pages with minimal coverage.

3. Control over British media: In Britain, the government attempted to suppress reports that exposed the brutality of British officers, which is why it took nearly eight months for The Manchester Guardian to publish a detailed report.

4. Deliberate downplaying to avoid backlash: The British authorities tried to minimize the impact of the massacre internationally and within India by treating it as a minor incident and protecting General Dyer instead of holding him accountable.

The Civil Disobedience Movement brought women out of their homes to participate in politics and to make them equal partners in freedom struggle. During Gandhiji's salt march, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to him. They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. Moved by Gandhiji's call, they began to see service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.
However, this did not result in any change in their social position. For a long time the Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority within the organization. It was keen only on their symbolic presence.

The Civil Disobedience Movement created a sense of collective belonging resulting in the spread of nationalism in the following ways:

1. The Movement caused a tide of patriotic fervour in the country that would not leave the Government in peace.
2. The Civil Disobedience Movement widened the base of the freedom struggle. A large number of social groups like merchants and shopkeepers, peasants, tribals and workers in different parts of the country were mobilised for the Indian national movement.
3. It made people understand the significance of the principles of non-violence. People could resist violence with tolerance and courage.
4. The Movement under the leadership of Birla and the 'Harijan Sevak Sangh' changed the social conditions. The depressed classes were given entry into temples and access to wells, which was earlier denied to them.
5. It brought women out of their homes to participate in politics and to make them equal partners in the freedom struggle.
6. The movement revived the will to fight the elections.