The First War of Independence, 1857

(R) contradicts (A)

Explanation : Assertion (A) talks about the widespread revolts against British policies across different parts of India from the mid-18th century till 1857 but Reason (R) discusses the nature of these revolts, stating that they were local, scattered, and isolated, but they established a tradition of struggle against foreign rule.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation: Reason (R) supports and explains Assertion (A). By Subsidiary Alliance, the British gained control over some states without actually annexing them and thereby, adding to the grievances of the Indian rulers.

(R) contradicts (A)

Explanation : Assertion (A) suggests that Lord Dalhousie justified the annexation of Awadh for the benefit of the people being governed. However, Reason (R) indicates that the people of Awadh had to pay higher land revenue and additional taxes on food, houses, and ferries after the annexation. This suggests that the annexation of Awadh was not in the best interest of the people.

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation : The Assertion (A) talks about the introduction of modern innovations like railways and telegraph in India by the British in the mid-19th century which is true. The Reason (R) given is false because the British did not introduce these innovations with the intention to modernize India. Instead, their primary motives were:

1. Efficient administration – Faster movement of troops and officials.
2. Economic exploitation – Easy transportation of raw materials from India to British factories and finished goods back to Indian markets.
3. Military control – Quick communication and movement of forces to suppress rebellions.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other

Explanation : Assertion (A) talks about the poor conditions of the Indian soldiers who helped the East India Company establish the British Empire in India. Reason (R) states that a large proportion of the British Army consisted of Indian Soldiers. Both statements are true but are independent of each other.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation : Reason (R) provides a reason for Assertion (A), stating that although the Uprising failed to achieve its objectives, it inspired the Indians to resist the British rule. The sacrifices made by Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb and Mangal Pandey served as a source of inspiration for the future freedom fighters.

The Battle of Plassey

Lord Wellesley

Jhansi

Awadh

Awadh

The Inam Commission

Poona

Both (1) and (2)

Meerut

All of the above.

Meerut-Tantia Tope

Explanation: The Uprising in Meerut was led by sepoys. Tantia Tope was a general in Nana Saheb's forces.

the British abandoned their repressive policies

Explanation: Queen Victoria's Proclamation promised that the Government of India would follow a policy of non-intervention in social and religious matters of Indians. The Policy of Annexation and the Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned.

The East India Company

(A), (C), (D), (B)

Explanation:

Battle of Plassey- 1757
Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh- 1856
Introduction of Enfield Rifle- 1857
Queen Victoria's Proclamation- 1858

Salaries of Sepoys

Q and S

Explanation: The policy of Annexation through Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned. Also, a general pardon was granted to all those who had taken part in the war except those who were found guilty of murder of British subjects.

(a) The people in the picture are Indian Sepoys in the British army. The Indian Sepoys were ill-treated by their British counterparts even though they were equally efficient. They were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed. British military authorities forbade the sepoys from wearing caste and sectarian marks, beards or turbans and they showed disregard for the sentiments of the sepoys.

(b) Three grievances the Indian soldiers had against the British were —

1. Bleak prospects of promotion — All higher positions in employment were reserved for the British, irrespective of their performance. Indian Sepoys could not rise above the rank of a Subedar.
2. Lower Salaries — The wages of the Indian Sepoys were inadequate to support their families. On the other hand, the British soldiers received more than eight times the salary of the Indian soldiers.
3. Deprivation of Allowances — The Indian Sepoys were required to serve in areas away from their homes without extra payment and additional Bhatta. The Post Office Act of 1854 withdrew the privilege of free postage enjoyed by the sepoys.

(c) The Indian army was reorganised after 1858, to prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising and the status of Indian Sepoys was affected in the following ways:

1. The strength of the European troops in India was increased. The ratio of European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5 (Madras and Bombay armies). The general principle was that the number of Indian sepoys should not exceed twice that of the European troops.
2. The sophisticated weapons and ammunition were never placed under the charge of the Indians. All Indian artillery units, with the exceptions of a few mountain units, were disbanded.
3. Discrimination on the basis of caste and religion was practised in the recruitment of the army.
4. Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers.
5. In order to discourage nationalism, measures such as introduction of caste and community in most regiments were taken.

(a) This picture shows Queen Victoria.

The proclamation was called Queen Victoria's Proclamation.

(b) Queen Victoria's Proclamation was made public at Allahabad, on November 1, 1858, by Lord Canning, the first Viceroy of India.

(c) Below assurances were given to the Indian people by this Proclamation:

(i) Queen Victoria's Proclamation promised to follow the policy of non-intervention in social and religious matters of Indians and to treat all subjects - Indians and Europeans - as equal.

(ii) Queen Victoria's Proclamation included a provision in which appointments to the civil service were to be made by open competition under rules made by the Secretary of State. Education and ability would be the basis of all appointments.

1. The company began rapid territorial expansion after the Battle of Plassey (1757).
2. The Great Uprising of 1857 put an end to the company's rule. The Government of India Act of 1858 was passed by the British crown which transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to the British Crown.

The rebellions against the British before the First War of Independence were local, scattered and isolated. They did not pose a serious threat to the British.

Revolt of 1857 was known as the first war of independence because it was for the first time that our entire nation irrespective of the caste, creed, race, and religion had come together and staged an armed protest against the Britishers to gain independence from their colonial rule.

Two political causes of the First War of Independence were —

1. Policy of Expansion — The British policy of territorial expansion and gradual annexation of the native Indian states was one of the major grievances of the Indian rulers.
2. Absentee Sovereignty of the British — Indians felt they were being ruled from England and India's wealth was drained to England and not utilised for their welfare.

Two ways in which the British expanded their territorial power in India were-

1. Subsidiary alliance
2. Doctrine of Lapse

Subsidiary alliance was an agreement between the British East India Company and the Indian Princely States by virtue of which these states lost their sovereignty to the British.

Two Indian States brought under the British control using the Subsidiary Alliance are Awadh and Hyderabad.

According to Doctrine of Lapse, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would come under the Company's territory in India.

The two States annexed by the British using the Doctrine of Lapse are Jhansi and Nagpur.

The policy of Doctrine of Lapse was used by Lord Dalhousie against Rani Laxmi Bai.

Rani Laxmi Bai became a bitter enemy of the British because when the ruler of Jhansi died in 1853, leaving no natural heir, the widowed Rani was pensioned and their adopted son, Anand Rao, was not recognised as a lawful successor to the throne.

Two announcements which adversely affected the Mughal dynasty in India are-

1. In 1849, Lord Dalhousie announced that successors of Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be permitted to use the Red Fort as their palace. They were required to shift to a place near the Qutub Minar.
2. In 1856, Lord Canning announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah, his successors would not be allowed to use the imperial titles with their names and would be known as mere princes.

Two consequences of the annexation of Awadh are-

1. People had to pay higher land revenue and additional taxes on food, houses and ferries.
2. The dissolution of the Nawab of Awadh's army and administration threw thousands of nobles, officials and soldiers out of jobs.

Two consequences of the disbanding of the armies of the annexed States by the British are-

1. The dissolution of the Nawab of Awadh's army and administration threw thousands of nobles, officials and soldiers out of jobs.
2. It also affected the soldier's financial position. They had to pay higher taxes on the land their families held in Awadh.

Absentee Sovereignty of the British means that India was being ruled by the British government from England, at a distance of thousands of miles.

This was resented by the Indians because they felt that they were being ruled from England and India's wealth was being drained to England and not utilised for their welfare.

The apprehensions of Indians about the introduction of the railways were that in the railway compartments, the higher castes and the lower castes were made to sit side by side. They believed that the British had introduced such practices to defy their caste and religion.

Two social reforms advocated by the British which affected the religious traditions of the Indian people are-

1. Abolition of Sati in 1829
2. Widow Remarriage Act of 1856

Two measures which point to the policy of social discrimination followed by the British in India are-

1. The Indian soldiers were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed.
2. All higher positions in employment were reserved for the British, irrespective of their performance.

Two grievances of the peasantry against the British are-

1. Increase in the land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness or into selling their lands.
2. The traditional zamindars were replaced by merchants and moneylenders. These new land owners had no concern for the peasants. They pushed rents to exorbitant levels and evicted their tenants in case of non-payment.

According to the provisions of the Inam Commission(1852), 20,000 estates were confiscated when the landlords failed to produce evidence like title deeds by which they held the land. These confiscated lands were sold by public auction to the highest bidders. This drove the landed aristocracy to poverty.

According to the traditional belief, it was a taboo for a Brahmin to cross the seas. As per the General Service Enlistment Act of 1856, Indian soldiers could be sent overseas on duty. The Act did not take into account the sentiment of the Indian soldiers. The Brahmin soldiers saw in this a danger to their caste. This led to the feeling of resentment among them.

Two grievances harboured by the Indian soldiers which created an atmosphere favourable to the First War of Independence are-

1. All higher positions in employment were reserved for the British, irrespective of their performance.
2. The wages of the Indian soldiers were inadequate to support their families. On the other hand, the British soldiers received more than eight times the salary of the Indian soldiers.

Two effects of the defeat of the British in the first Afghan War and the Punjab Wars on the Indian soldiers are-

1. The defeat of the British broke the myth that the British were invincible.
2. It revealed to the Indian soldiers that the British army could be defeated by the determined Indian army.

The immediate cause of the First War of Independence was the introduction of the Enfield rifle. The loading process of the Enfield rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top greased paper with the teeth.

In January 1857, there was a rumour in the Bengal regiments that the greased cartridge had the fat of cow or pig. The sepoys were now convinced that the introduction of greased cartridges was a deliberate move to defile Hindu and Muslim religions. So, the soldiers refused to use these cartridges and staged an uprising when they were forced to use them.

Mangal Pandey was a Brahmin sepoy, who refused to use the Enfield rifles.

He led an attack on the Adjutant of the 34th Native Infantry at Barrackpore on March 29, 1857. He was executed after a court martial.

Two consequences of the First War of Indian Independence on the East India Company are-

1. End of the Company's rule in India
2. The British rulers declared emphatically their policy of non-interference in the religious affairs, customs and traditions of the Indians.

The aims of India's foreign policy after the Queen's Proclamation were:

1. protection of its Indian Empire
2. expansion of British economic and commercial interests in Asia and Africa.

Two drawbacks of the First War of Independence are-

1. The movement had no common goal before it except for the anti-foreign sentiments.
2. Some of the rulers of the Indian states and the big zamindars refused to join the movement.

(a) The policy that the British followed to dispel 'the communal harmony' was 'Divide and Rule'. The British started turning caste against caste and Hindus against Muslims.

(b) The loading process of the Enfield Rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top greased paper with the teeth. There was a rumour that the greased cartridge had the fat of cow or pig. The cow is sacred to the Hindus while the pig is a taboo to the Muslims so both Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused to use these cartridges thinking it was a deliberate move to defile their religion. When the British forced them, they unitedly staged an uprising.

(c) The Indian army was reorganised to prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising, in the following manner:

1. The strength of European troops in India was increased. The ratio of European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5 (Madras and Bombay armies). Practically the same ratio was maintained till the First World War. The general principle adopted was that the number of Indian sepoys should not exceed twice that of the European troops.
2. European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions.
3. To desist the Indian soldiers from rising again against the British rule, the sophisticated weapons and ammunition were never placed under the charge of Indians. All Indian artillery units, with the exceptions of a few mountain units, were disbanded.
4. Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practised in the recruitment to the army.
5. In order to discourage nationalism, measures such as introduction of caste and community in most regiments were taken.
6. Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers to keep the Indian army separated from the life of the rest of the population.

(a) The British crippled the Indian trade and handicrafts in the following manner-

1. Heavy duties on Indian silk and cotton textiles in Britain destroyed Indian industries.
2. On the other hand, British goods were imported into India at a nominal duty.
3. By the middle of 19th century, export of cotton and silk goods from India practically ceased.
4. The art of spinning and weaving, which for ages had given employment to thousands of artisans, became extinct.
5. The misery of the artisans was further compounded by the disappearance of their traditional patrons and buyers- the princes, chieftains and zamindars.

(b) The official land revenue policy was the main cause of the impoverishment of the cultivators.

1. It was the peasantry that bore the heavy burden of taxes to provide money for the trade of the Company, for the cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India.
2. The land revenue was double the amount collected under the Mughals.
3. Not even a part of this revenue was spent on the development of agriculture or on the welfare of the cultivator.
4. Increase in the land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness or into selling their lands.
5. The traditional zamindars were replaced by merchants and money lenders, who had no concern for the peasants.
6. They pushed rents to exorbitant levels and evicted their tenants in case of non-payment. Thus, British economic exploitation, decay of indigenous industries, high taxation, the drain of wealth, stagnation of agriculture and exploitation of the poor peasants reduced the Indians to extreme poverty.

(c) The British exploited the Indian resources for their own benefits in the following manner-

1. They made agricultural India an economic colony to serve the interests of industrial England.
2. India was forced to export, at cheaper rates, raw material, raw cotton and raw silk that the British industries needed urgently.
3. India also exported plantation products and food grains which were in short supply in Britain.
4. India was made to accept ready-made British goods either duty-free or at nominal duty rates, while Indian products were subjected to high import duties in England.
5. This ruined the Indian industry, deprived the artisans of their income and reduced the avenues of employment for labour.
6. Export of raw materials and food grains deprived India of her agricultural surplus and raised the prices of raw materials.

(a) The 'rebels of Delhi' being mentioned are the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah, the soldiers who came from Meerut, and the local infantry who joined them. They rebelled in Delhi starting from May 11, 1857 when they proclaimed Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. They seized Delhi and raised arms against the British.

(b) The temptation or provocation being talked about in the excerpt refers to the causes and motivations behind the Indian rebellion of 1857. Some of the causes being:

1. Political causes like policy of expansion by using the doctrine of lapse, by subsidiary alliance and on the pretext of alleged misrule.
2. Socio-religious causes like interference with social customs, oppression of the poor and activities of missionaries.
3. Economic causes like exploitation of economic resources and decay of cottage industries and handicrafts.
4. Military causes like ill-treatment of Indian soldiers and General Service Enlistment Act.
5. Immediate cause being introduction of the Enfield Rifle.

(c) The consequences of 'their' alleged 'crimes' being talked about in the excerpt are:

1. Emperor Bahadur Shah was found guilty for aiding the movement and as a punishment his two sons were shot dead in front of him and he was sentenced to life imprisonment and deported to Yangon in Myanmar.
2. Mass executions were carried out.
3. The rebel troops were punished harshly.

(a) The uprising of 1857 was the first struggle of the Indian people for freedom from British imperialism. It paved the way for the rise of the national movement. The sacrifices made by Rani Laxmi Bai, Nana Saheb and Mangal Pandey served as a source of inspiration for the future freedom fighters. The heroic struggle also established valuable traditions of resistance to the British rule.

(b) The uprising of 1857 ushered in the era of economic exploitation in the following manner-

1. India was turned into a typical colonial economy, exporting raw material and importing finished goods.
2. The salary and allowances of the Secretary of State and members of the India Council, the civil servants and military officers were a large drain on the country's resources.
3. Peasants were impoverished under the British rule. The indigo peasants of Bihar revolted on a large scale in 1866-68.
4. Rural artisan industries such as handicrafts, spinning and weaving collapsed.
5. Indians had to pay heavy interests and dividends on the British capital invested in India. The British invested their surplus capital in India in railways, plantations, coalmines, jute mills, shipping etc.

(c) The British Government tried to pacify the feelings of Indians in the following ways:

(i) Religious Practices:

1. The British rulers declared emphatically their policy of non-interference in the religious affairs, customs and traditions of the Indians.
2. Queen Victoria's Proclamation promised to follow a policy of non-intervention in social and religious matters of Indians.
3. The proclamation promised to treat all subjects- Indians and Europeans- as equals.

(ii) Princely States:

1. The Policy of Annexation and the Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned.
2. Some of the Indian princes had remained loyal to the British and had helped them in suppressing the uprising.
3. Their loyalty was rewarded with the announcement that their right to adopt heirs would be respected and the integrity of their territories guaranteed against future annexation.
4. In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of the "Empress of India". The Indian princes willingly became junior partners or agents of the British Crown because they were promised that they would continue as rulers of their States.

The grievances of each of the rulers are listed below:

1. The Nawab of Awadh was enraged due to the humiliating manner in which he was deposed and Awadh annexed on the pretext of alleged misrule even though he was the first to enter into subsidiary alliance paying the British to defend the kingdom of Awadh.
2. Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar and his wife Zeenat Mahal were furious with the British over the announcement that his successors cannot use the Red Fort as their palace and cannot use the imperial titles with their names.
3. The rulers of Jhansi, Satara, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Udaipur and Nagpur were discontent because their kingdoms were annexed by the British using Doctrine of Lapse.
4. Nana Saheb the adopted son of Baji Rao II was refused the pension that the British were paying to Baji Rao II. He was forced to live at Kanpur, far away from his family seat at Poona.
5. Nawabs of Carnatic and Tanjore were unhappy as their regal titles were taken away.
6. The Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the Raja of Tanjore, the Sindhia and the Rajput states of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Macheri, Bundi and ruler of Bharatpur have entered into Subsidiary alliance with the British. They were now suspicious of the British and discontent on losing their independence.

After annexation of Awadh, the grievances my father had against the British are as follows:

1. His son had helped the British to conquer the rest of India and as a result, his homeland had come under foreign rule.
2. The annexation of Awadh affected his financial position.
3. He had to pay higher taxes on the land his family held in Awadh.

In 1856, the British began to annex many cities on the pretext of alleged misrule. My locality was annexed too after which we had to pay higher taxes, the nobles, officials and soldiers were thrown out of jobs. The resentment of the people lead to various uprisings in my locality. Some of them are as follows:

1. In March 1857, the introduction of greased cartridges began the revolt against the British. Various regiments were disbanded and sent to their villages. Sepoys who refused to use greased cartridges were sentenced to imprisonment with hard labour.
2. The Indian soldiers broke into the jail and freed their fellow comrades. They captured the city and tried to unite all the chiefs but their success was short-lived. Soon the city was recaptured by the British forces and their enemies were punished severely.
3. In May 1857, there was another uprising where the Indian soldiers beseiged the residence of Sir Henry Lawrence, where all the Europeans resided. Although the Indian forces were motivated and showed great valor, they could not fight off the British forces and in March 1858, the British regained control of the city.

Thus, although there were many uprisings, they were not organised well and ultimately, could not succeed.

If the Uprising of 1857 had not taken place when it did, the course of Indian history might have taken a very different path. The revolt, although unsuccessful, marked a turning point in India’s struggle against British rule. It was the first large-scale expression of collective resentment against British policies — both political and economic — and revealed the potential for unity among diverse sections of Indian society.

Without this uprising:

1. The British East India Company might have continued its exploitative rule for a longer time.
2. The policy changes that followed — end of Company rule, Queen Victoria’s Proclamation, and reforms in army and administration — may have been delayed or not occurred at all.
3. The idea of a united Indian resistance, and the awareness among Indians of their collective strength, may have taken longer to emerge.

However, the desire for independence would not have died out, because economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and political suppression would have continued, eventually pushing Indians toward organized political struggle — as seen later in the rise of nationalist movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Hence, while India might still have gained independence eventually, the Revolt of 1857 played a vital role in sowing the early seeds of nationalism and in shaping future resistance. It was a precursor to the national movement, and without it, the awakening of political consciousness in India could have been significantly delayed.

This is because the First War of Independence although a significant milestone, did not result in immediate freedom from British rule. There were several reasons why India took another 90 years (until 1947) to finally achieve independence:

1. Lack of National Unity in 1857: The revolt was not a nationwide movement. It was confined to specific regions and did not include participation from all sections of society. Many Indian rulers either remained neutral or supported the British, fearing loss of their own power.
2. Absence of a Common Nationalist Ideology: The uprising lacked a unified goal or nationalistic vision. The rebels fought more for restoration of old powers (Mughal, Maratha, etc.) rather than a collective idea of an independent India.
3. Superior British Resources and Military Strength: The British had better military technology, communication systems (telegraph, railways), and organized administrative machinery, which helped them suppress the revolt effectively.
4. Divide and Rule Policy: After 1857, the British deliberately sowed communal divisions between Hindus and Muslims through their Divide and Rule policy, preventing the emergence of a strong, united front against colonial rule for many years.
5. Repressive Measures After 1857: The revolt was followed by harsh punishments, executions, and mass repression. The British also strengthened their control over the army and administration, ensuring no similar rebellion could easily arise again.
6. Gradual Rise of Political Consciousness: It was only towards the end of the 19th century, with the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, that a systematic and organized national movement began, and even that took decades to mature into a mass struggle.

The First War of Independence was an important beginning, but India’s independence was a gradual process, requiring the rise of political awareness, social reforms, national unity, and organized leadership, all of which took time to develop under oppressive colonial rule. Hence, it took 90 more years to finally overthrow British rule.