The Sangam Age

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — Megaliths are large stones used in various types of ancient structures, often as burial sites or commemorative memorials.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Sangam literature speaks of many tribes and traditional castes. This means that the caste divisions and the tribal arrangement existed side by side.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — The division of social groups into the rich and the poor was accepted as natural as poverty was considered the result of the past actions of men, not because people believed in earning wealth.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — In Sangam literature, Velirs are portrayed as independent chieftains who ruled in bordering areas of the major ruling dynasties. They helped in settling disputes among the rulers and were also known for extending patronage to Tamil poets.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Brahmans were indeed respected during Sangam Age as they were learned man. Even the king used to respect him.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — The given two statements discuss different groups of people living in different geographical areas and their respective ways of life.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Paddy was the most commonly accepted medium of exchange during the Sangam Age. Paddy was sold by mentioning its price in terms of salt.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — The gold and silver coins from the Roman Empire found in the interior of Tamil land indicate the extent of foreign trade.

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — The status af women in the Sangam Age was not equal to that of men.

Association

133

Megaliths

Aram, Porul and Inbam

Megaliths

All of the above

All of the above.

All of the above

All of the above.

landed aristocrats

Adimai : priests

The author of Tirukkural was Tiruvalluvar, Tamil poet and philosopher.

The three sections into which the chapters of Tirukkural are categorised are:

1. Aaram (Righteousness)
2. Porul (Wealth)
3. Inbam or Kamam (Pleasure)

The Megaliths are box-like structures erected with the stone slabs, resting on each other without any mortar. Sometimes there was an opening cut into one of the sides. Some megaliths are seen on surface while some are underground with stone circles or boulders placed on surface to serve as signpost to find the burial site.

Megaliths are called so because they are huge stones that acted as either burial sites or commemorative memorials. They are also known as memorial stones.

Four divisions (tinais) mentioned in the Sangam literature are:

1. Backwoods (Kurinji)
2. Parched zones (Palai)
3. Pastoral tract (Mullai)
4. Wet land (Marutam)

The Vellalars were landed aristocrats, who cultivated the wetlands during the Sangam Age. They had close associations and held high positions of office with the three main dynasties, Cheras, cholas and Pandyas. They also carried out trade.

The main crops grown during the Sangam Period were rice, cotton, ragi, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, cinnamon, different varieties of fruits etc.

Uraiyur was one major centre of cotton trade.

The products exported to foreign countries during the Sangam Age were Pepper, Ginger, Cardamom, Cinnamon, Turmeric, Ivory products, Pearls and Precious Stones.

During the Sangam period, society was divided into different social divisions, each associated with specific occupations:

1. Ruling Class — This was the ruling class, which included kings and warriors.
2. Brahmins — The Brahmins were priests and scholars, and they occupied the highest position. They often played the role of Judicial officer.
3. Vaishyas — This group was engaged in trade and commerce. They were traders and artisans.
4. Vellalars — The Vellalars were primarily engaged in agriculture. They were landed aristocrats.
5. Tinai groups — They were hunters, gatherers or carried shifting agriculture or lived on animal husbandry.

(a) The word Sangam is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit 'Sangha' which means confluence or an assembly or an association. The Sangam Age refers to a period when bulk of Tamil literature was composed by a body of Tamil scholars and poets in three successive literary gatherings called Sangam. Hence, Sangam refers to Gatherings of poets and bards.

(b) Tirukkural was composed by a Tamil poet and philosopher named Thiruvalluvar.

Tirukkural is one of his most celebrated works. Tirukkural (or Kural) is considered as a compound of the teachings of Dharamashastra, the Arthashastra and the Kamasutra. It comprises a series of brief metrical proverbs on many aspects of life and religion. It is a collection of Tamil couplets organised into 133 chapters. Each chapter has a specific subject ranging from "ploughing a piece of land' to "ruling a country'. It preaches simplicity and truth throughout its verses. The 133 chapters are grouped into three sections:
(a) Aram (righteousness);
(b) Porul (wealth); and
(c) Inbam or Kamam (pleasure).

(c) Megaliths give us the following information about the Sangam Age:

1. Some megaliths contain more than one skeleton. This indicates that people belonging to the same family were buried in the same place though at different time periods.
2. Grave goods including pottery and iron objects contained in the Megaliths provide a useful insight about the life of people during the Sangam Age.
3. The number of agricultural tools compared to those meant for fishing and hunting are less, so it can be concluded that the megalithic people initially did not practice an advanced type of agriculture.
4. From the grave goods, religious beliefs of the megalithic people can also be inferred. For example, the presence of tridents in the graves, show their faith in Lord Shiva.
5. Megalithic culture includes a subsistence base consisting of agriculture, cattle rearing and fishing, the use of iron, and a period in which warfare and weapons were important.

(a) The lady in the picture is Kannagi.

Kannagi, a legendary Tamil woman is revered for her Chastity and Loyalty. Kannagi is described as a chaste woman who stays with her husband Kovalan despite his adultery. When Kovalan was wrongfully executed by the Pandya king for a crime he did not commit, Kannagi fought for justice. This made Kannagi a symbol of justice throughout the kingdom.

(b) The status of women in Sangam society was not equal to that of men. However, women enjoyed freedom of movement in society and the number of women poets of the age is a proof that the women were provided with good education. The Sangam society consisted of different kinds of women. There were married women who had settled down as dutiful housewives looking after their husbands and children. There were female ascetics belonging to Buddhist or Jain tradition like Kaundi Adigal and Manimegalai. There were a large number of courtesans.

(c) The Tolkappiyam was written by Tolkappiar, in second Sangam. It has mentioned four castes, namely, Brahmanas, Kings, Traders and Farmers. It ignores most of the other names of people. This show the influence of the Sanskritic social ideal. The Brahmans during the Sangam Age were a respectable and learned community. They served the king occasionally as judicial officers and always as priests and astrologers. The Vaishyas were assigned the duties of learning, performing sacrifice, making gifts, agriculture, protection of cows etc. The Vellalars were landed aristocrats who cultivated wetlands. The ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar and the landless labourers were known as kadasiyar and adimai.

(a) Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. The main crop was Rice while other crops included Cotton, Ragi, Sugarcane, Pepper, Ginger, Cardamom, Turmeric, Cinnamon, different varieties of fruits, etc. Construction of embankments and canals for irrigation was undertaken by the state. Rural activities like the cultivation of ragi and sugarcane, the making of sugar from the cane, and the harvesting and drying of grain are described in the Sangam poems in detail.

(b) Markets called Angadi were established in bigger towns. Internal trade was carried by caravans of Merchants with carts and pack-animals which carried their merchandise from place to place. Most of the trade was carried on by barter. Paddy constituted the most commonly accepted medium of exchange. Salt was sold for paddy. Paddy was sold by mentioning its price in terms of salt. Honey and roots were exchanged for fish oil. There were also hawkers who carried goods to the houses of the people.

(c) During the Sangam Age there was an extensive trade with foreign countries. According to the Sangam literature the Tamil land had certain commodities which were in great demand in foreign markets. These included pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. The main imports included horse, gold and glass. The port cities were the center of foreign trade. Saliyur in the Pandya country and Bandar in Chera were the most important ports. The Gold and Silver coins from the Roman empire found in the interior of the Tamil land indicate the extent of the trade. The Periplus of the Red Sea that describes navigation and trade of the Roman empire gives information on trade between India and the Roman empire. It also mentions Uraiyur where all the Pearls from coast was sent and exported. Naura, Tyndis and Muziris were leading ports on west coast.

The society in the Sangam Age was different from that in the Vedic Age in following ways:

1. The society in the Sangam Age was organised by occupational groups while the society in Vedic Age was organised on the basis of castes.
2. Women in Sangam age were respected and were allowed intellectual pursuits. There were women poets like Avvaiyar and Nachchellair. Women in Vedic Age were also in respectable position but their education was not given importance. Also their position in society declined towards later Vedic age.
3. Sati-pratha was prevalent in Sangam Age while Vedic Age women could remarry after death of husband.
4. Primary deity of Sangam age was Murugan and that of Vedic age were Indra, Agni and Varuna.
5. Economy of Sangam Age was based on agriculture while Vedic economy was pastoral.

The women here are enjoying respectable position in the society. They are free to move. Most of them are educated. A few women are very good poets. I can see that the women are not being suppressed. They are getteng education without any discrimination. Some are dutiful home makers. They are ascetics belonging to Buddhits or Jain tradition. Some women are artists (singers or dancers). The women here are free to choose their life partners.

Some structures similar to megaliths or commemorative memorials in other civilisations of the world are:

1. Newgrange site of Ireland
2. Gobekli Tepe of Turkey
3. Malta's megalithic temples
4. Stonehenge of England
5. Pyramids of ancient Egypt

Similarities:

1. They all are of neolithic period, built around 3000 BC to 2000 BC.
2. All are stone structure, made without using mortar.

Dissimilarities:

1. The differ in their height, shape and size.
2. Some have erect stones (pillars) while others have flat stone pieces. Stepped stones were used in pyramids.
3. Some of them are dome shaped (like Newgrange of Ireland), while a few are long barrow type(tumulus).

The Sillapadikaram and Manimekalai are two outstanding works of Tamil Literature. Manimekalai is sequel of Sillapadikaram.

Sillapadikaram is story of Kovalan and his wife Kannagi. In this story Kovalan betrays Kannagi for other women and later realises his mistake and returns back to her. They then move to Madurai. The king of Madurai executes Kovalan on false charges of stealing anklet. Kannagi curses the king due to which he dies. Later Kannagi is worshipped like a Devi.

Manimekalai is the story of daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. She was very beautiful artist. She was chased by a prince who wanted to marry her. She was helped by Buddhist angels to escape. Later the prince was killed and she walked away free.

Both these stories potray women who suffered and were harassed by the society in similar way as Sita and Draupadi suffered in Ramayana and Mahabharata, respectively. The women characters in Sillapadikaram and Manimekalai tend to have more agency and independence compared to those in Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, all the four epics feature women who exhibit strength, loyalty, and bravery in their own unique ways.